TyroCity: Computer 11 Notes

Internet

Computer 11 Notes — Sun, 08 Apr 2012 05:41:42 +0000

Internet is the connection of millions of computers spread all over the world. It is the world largest computer network. It is the network of networks.

It is a public network so it is not owned by a particular user organization or government. However, it is controlled by internet authority.
Internet is initiated by US army. It was used for their internal communication but later, it become popular and used all over the world.

Uses of internet

Online communication: – It is used for online communication.
It is helpful for online business through e-commerce.
It is helpful for video conference.
It is helpful for e-ticketing, online reservation.
It helps to find information about various things.
It is used for entertainment.
It is used for downloading the video files, music files.
It is used for online job.
Advertisement.

Some terms related with Internet are:

1. Browser:-
A browser is internet based application software used to access a webpage. It sends request to the web server and displays the received HTML files in proper format user interact with the internet by using browser.
e.g. Google Chrome, Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Opera, Netscape, Safari, etc.

2. Search engine:-
It is also internet based application software. It can be used to access the required information or webpage address from the internet. A search engine maintains the record of all the websites and their contents. When the user requests by providing the keywords, it provides a list of websites and their links from its database. Google.com is the most common search engine at present. Other search engine includes bing.com, yahoo.com, altavista.com, webcrawler.com, etc.

3. Messenger service:-
A messenger is also internet based application software. It is used for communication. Such as text chat, audio-video chat, conference call, transmitting data and files, offline messages, etc. Some of the common messengers used are MSM messenger, Yahoo messenger, Google talk, AOL, Skype, etc.

4. Webpage:-
It is the fundamental unit of web. It is used to provide text emails, audio, video to the users. Webpage is developed by using scripting and web based programming language. Webpage are of two types:

Static
Dynamic

A static webpage is developed by using HTML.
Dynamic webpage is developed by using programming language like PHP, ASP, C#, etc along with HTML.

5. Website:-
A website is a location used for storing webpage. User access the webpage by using the website address. For e.g. facebook.com, tyrocity.com, babal.host, etc.

6. Web server:-
Web server is a program required to host webpage so that it can be accessed through the internet. To host webpage, the computer should have web server running, dedicated internet connection and the computer should be running all the time. The common web servers used are IIS (Internet Information Service) and Apache (for Linux based system).

7. URL (Uniform resource locator):-
It is a complete website address which is used to specify domain name, website location, and the protocol used for communication. A complete URL is provided to access a web site.
e.g. https://tyrocity.com, http://www.google.com.np.

8. Domain name system (DNS)
A domain name system is the process of using domain name to access a computer or website such as hotmail.com is a domain name. Domain names are easier to remember and access compared to IP address. However, communication is done through IP address. An IP address is a numerical value such as 192.168.1.1. It is used to identify a particular computer on a network. Since, these IP addresses are difficult to remember, domain names are used in place of IP address. A DNS translates domain name into corresponding IP address. Domain names are classified on the basis of type of organization and the country wise.

Type of organization:-
.com
.org
.edu
.gov
.net
.mil
.biz
.tv

Country wise:-
.np
.in
.sl
.pk
.uk
.au

9. Protocol:-
A protocol is a rule or standard defined to be used by all the components. Network protocol can be defined as the rules used for communication between two or more devices.

Some of the common network protocols used are:-

HTTP ( Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
HTTPS (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secured)
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
POP (Post Office Protocol)
IMAP (Internet Mail Access Protocol)
IP (Internet Protocol)
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
VOIP (Voice Over Internet Protocol)

- HTTP:
It is used for the communication of hypertext document. Webpages are the example of hypertext document. It is developed by using HTML and contains hyperlink.

- FTP:
It is used for the transmission of files like document image, audio, video, software, games, etc.

- HTTPS:
It is used for the transmission of hypertext document by providing higher security. It is mainly used by banking sector, e-commerce, and other electronic payment system where higher security is required. It uses encryption and decryption technique to provide security.

- SMTP, POP & IMAP:
These protocols are used for email communication for sending and receiving emails.

- IP:
It is the most common protocol used in internet to identify a particular system. It is used along with TCP in internet (TCP/IP).

- TCP:
It is connection oriented protocol i.e. connection is maintained throughout communication. It provides reliable transmission so it is slower than UDP. It is the common protocol used in internet for transmission of hypertext documents, files and email message.

- UDP:
It is connectionless protocol. It doesn’t provide reliable transmission but it is faster than TCP. So, UDP is preferred for transmitting real time, multimedia data.

- VOIP:
It is used for transmission of voice signal through internet. It is the cheaper and faster medium of communication mainly for a long distance.

Basic Concept Of Computer

Computer 11 Notes — Sun, 08 Apr 2012 05:41:42 +0000

Introduction to computer

Let us begin with the word ‘compute’. It means ‘to calculate’. We all are familiar with calculations in our day to day life. We apply mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc. and many other formulae for calculations. Simpler calculations take less time. But complex calculations take much longer time. Another factor is accuracy in calculations. So man explored with the idea to develop a machine which can perform this type of arithmetic calculation faster and with full accuracy. This gave birth to a device or machine called ‘computer’.

The computer we see today is quite different from the one made in the beginning. The number of applications of a computer has increased, the speed and accuracy of calculation has increased. You must appreciate the impact of computers in our day to day life. Reservation of tickets in Air Lines and Railways, payment of telephone and electricity bills, deposits and withdrawals of money from banks, business data processing, medical diagnosis, weather forecasting, etc. are some of the areas where computer has become extremely useful.

However, there is one limitation of the computer. Human beings do calculations on their own. But computer is a dumb machine and it has to be given proper instructions to carry out its calculation. This is why we should know how a computer works.

Objectives

After going through this lesson you will be in a position to

Define a computer
Identify characteristics of computer
Know the origin and evolution of computer
Identify capability of computer in terms of speed and accuracy
Distinguish computer from human beings and calculator
Identify the role of computer
Appreciate the evolution of computer through five generations

Computers

Computer is an electronic device. As mentioned in the introduction it can do arithmetic calculations faster. But as you will see later it does much more than that. It can be compared to a magic box, which serves different purpose to different people. For a common man computer is simply a calculator, which works automatic and quite fast. For a person who knows much about it, computer is a machine capable of solving problems and manipulating data. It accepts data, processes the data by doing some mathematical and logical operations and gives us the desired output.

Therefore, we may define computer as a device that transforms data. Data can be anything like marks obtained by you in various subjects. It can also be name, age, sex, weight, height, etc. of all the students in your class or income, savings, investments, etc., of a country. Computer can be defined in terms of its functions. It can:

Accept data
Store data
Process data as desired
Retrieve the stored data as and when required
Print the result in desired format. You will know more about these functions as you go through the later lessons

Characteristics of computer

Let us identify the major characteristics of computer. These can be discussed under the headings of speed, accuracy, diligence, versatility and memory.

Speed

As you know computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations that we take hours to complete. Suppose you are asked to calculate the average monthly income of one thousand persons in your neighborhood. For this you have to add income from all sources for all persons on a day to day basis and find out the average for each one of them. How long will it take for you to do this? One day, two days or one week? Do you know your small computer can finish this work in few seconds? The weather forecasting that you see every day on TV is the results of compilation and analysis of huge amount of data on temperature, humidity, pressure, etc. of various places on computers. It takes few minutes for the computer to process this huge amount of data and give the result.

You will be surprised to know that computer can perform millions (1,000,000) of instructions and even more per second. Therefore, we determine the speed of computer in terms of microsecond (10-6 part of a second) or nano-second (10-9part of a second). From this you can imagine how fast your computer performs work.

Accuracy

Suppose some one calculates faster but commits a lot of errors in computing. Such result is useless. There is another aspect. Suppose you want to divide 15 by 7. You may work out up to 2 decimal places and say the dividend is 2.14. I may calculate up to 4 decimal places and say that the result is 2.1428. Some one else may go up to 9 decimal places and say the result is 2.142857143. Hence, in addition to speed, the computer should have accuracy or correctness in computing.

The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed with the same accuracy. The accuracy level is determined on the basis of design of computer. The errors in computer are due to human and inaccurate data.

Diligence

A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a computer will perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this capability it overpowers human being in routine type of work.

Versatility

It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may use your computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory management or to prepare electric bills.

Power of remembering

Computer has the power of storing any amount of information or data. Any information can be stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any numbers of years. It depends entirely upon you how much data you want to store in a computer and when to lose
or retrieve these data.

No IQ

Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the user. It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is you to decide what you want to do and in what sequence. So a computer cannot take its own decision as you can.

No feeling

It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus it does not get tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish between users.

Storage

The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data. You can also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can be kept outside your computer and can be carried to other computers.

In-text questions 1

What is a computer? Why is it known as data processor?
What are the important characteristics of computer?

History Of computer

History of computer could be traced back to the effort of man to count large numbers. This process of counting of large numbers generated various systems of numeration like Babylonian system of numeration, Greek system of numeration, Roman system of numeration and Indian system of numeration. Out of these the Indian system of numeration has been accepted universally. It is the basis of modern decimal system of numeration (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). Later you will know how the computer solves all calculations based on decimal system. But you will be surprised to know that the computer does not understand the decimal system and uses binary system of numeration for processing.

We will briefly discuss some of the path-breaking inventions in the field of computing devices.

Calculating Machines

It took over generations for early man to build mechanical devices for counting large numbers. The first calculating device called ABACUS was developed by the Egyptian and Chinese people.

The word ABACUS means calculating board. It consisted of sticks in horizontal positions on which were inserted sets of pebbles. A modern form of ABACUS is given in Fig. 1.2. It has a number of horizontal bars each having ten beads. Horizontal bars represent units, tens, hundreds, etc.

Napier’s bones

English mathematician John Napier built a mechanical device for the purpose of multiplication in 1617 A D. The device was known as Napier’s bones.

Slide rule

English mathematician Edmund Gunter developed the slide rule. This machine could perform operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It was widely used in Europe in 16th century.

Pascal’s adding and subtractory machine

You might have heard the name of Blaise Pascal. He developed a machine at the age of 19 that could add and subtract. The machine consisted of wheels, gears and cylinders.

Leibniz’s multiplication and dividing machine

The German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz built around 1673 a mechanical device that could both multiply and divide.

Babbage’s analytical engine

It was in the year 1823 that a famous English man Charles Babbage built a mechanical machine to do complex mathematical calculations. It was called difference engine. Later he developed a general-purpose calculating machine called analytical engine. You should know that Charles Babbage is called the father of computer.

Mechanical and electrical calculator

In the beginning of 19th century the mechanical calculator was developed to perform all sorts of mathematical calculations. Up to the 1960s it was widely used. Later the rotating part of mechanical calculator was replaced by electric motor. So it was called the electrical calculator.

Modern electronic calculator

The electronic calculator used in 1960 s was run with electron tubes, which was quite bulky. Later it was replaced with transistors and as a result the size of calculators became too small.

The modern electronic calculator can compute all kinds of mathematical computations and mathematical functions. It can also be used to store some data permanently. Some calculators have in-built programs to perform some complicated calculations.

In-text questions 2

What is the first mathematical device built and when was it built?
Who is called the father of Computer Technology.

Computer generations

You know that the evolution of computer started from 16th century and resulted in the form that we see today. The present day computer, however, has also undergone rapid change during the last fifty years. This period, during which the evolution of computer took place, can be divided into five distinct phases known as Generations of Computers. Each phase is distinguished from others on the basis of the type of switching circuits used.

First generation computers

First generation computers used Thermion valves. These computers were large in size and writing programs on them was difficult. Some of the computers of this generation were:

ENIAC: It was the first electronic computer built in 1946 at University of Pennsylvania, USA by John Eckert and John Mauchy. It was named Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). The ENIAC was 30´50 feet long, weighed 30 tons, contained 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 registers, 10,000 capacitors and required 150,000 watts of electricity. Today your favorite computer is many times as powerful as ENIAC, still size is very small.

EDVAC: It stands for Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
and was developed in 1950. The concept of storing data and instructions inside the computer was introduced here. This allowed much faster operation since the computer had rapid access to both data and instructions. The other advantages of storing instruction was that computer could do logical decision internally.

Other Important Computers of First Generation

EDSAC: It stands for Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer and was developed by M.V. Wilkes at Cambridge University in 1949.

UNIVAC-1: Ecker and Mauchly produced it in 1951 by Universal Accounting Computer setup.

Limitations of First Generation Computer

Followings are the major drawbacks of First generation computers.

The operating speed was quite slow.
Power consumption was very high.
It required large space for installation.
The programming capability was quite low.

Second generation computers

Around 1955 a device called Transistor replaced the bulky electric tubes in the first generation computer. Transistors are smaller than electric tubes and have higher operating speed. They have no filament and require no heating. Manufacturing cost was also very low. Thus the size of the computer got reduced considerably.

It is in the second generation that the concept of Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, programming language and input and output units were developed. The programming languages such as COBOL, FORTRAN were developed during this period. Some of the computers of the Second Generation were

IBM 1620: Its size was smaller as compared to First Generation computers and mostly used for scientific purpose.
IBM 1401: Its size was small to medium and used for business applications.
CDC 3600: Its size was large and is used for scientific purposes.

Third generation computers

The third generation computers were introduced in 1964. They used Integrated Circuits (ICs). These ICs are popularly known as Chips. A single IC has many transistors, registers and capacitors built on a single thin slice of silicon. So it is quite obvious that the size of the computer got further reduced. Some of the computers developed during this period were IBM-360, ICL-1900, IBM-370, and VAX-750. Higher level language such as BASIC (Beginners All purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) was developed during this period.

Computers of this generations were small in size, low cost, large memory and processing speed is very high.

Fourth generation computers

The present day computers that you see today are the fourth generation computers that started around 1975. It uses large scale Integrated Circuits (LSIC) built on a single silicon chip called microprocessors. Due to the development of microprocessor it is possible to place computer’s central processing unit (CPU) on single chip. These computers are called microcomputers. Later very large scale Integrated Circuits (VLSIC) replaced LSICs.

Thus the computer which was occupying a very large room in earlier days can now be placed on a table. The personal computer (PC) that you see in your school is a Fourth Generation Computer.

Fifth generation computer

The computers of 1990s are said to be Fifth Generation computers. The speed is extremely high in fifth generation computer. Apart from this it can perform parallel processing. The concept of Artificial intelligence has been introduced to allow the computer to take its own decision. It is still in a developmental stage.

Types of computers

Now let us discuss the varieties of computers that we see today. Although they belong to the fifth generation they can be divided into different categories depending upon the size, efficiency, memory and number of users. Broadly they can be divided it to the following categories.

1. Microcomputer: Microcomputer is at the lowest end of the computer range in terms of speed and storage capacity. Its CPU is a microprocessor. The first microcomputers were built of 8-bit microprocessor chips. The most common application of personal computers (PC) is in this category. The PC supports a number of input and output devices. An improvement of 8-bit chip is 16-bit and 32-bit chips. Examples of microcomputer are IBM PC, PC-AT .

2. Mini Computer: This is designed to support more than one user at a time. It possesses large storage capacity and operates at a higher speed. The mini computer is used in multi-user system in which various users can work at the same time. This type of computer is generally used for processing large volume of data in an organization. They are also used as servers in Local Area Networks (LAN).

3. Mainframes: These types of computers are generally 32-bit microprocessors. They operate at very high speed, have very large storage capacity and can handle the work load of many users. They are generally used in centralized databases. They are also used as controlling nodes in Wide Area Networks (WAN). Example of mainframes are DEC, ICL and IBM 3000 series.

4. Supercomputer: They are the fastest and most expensive machines. They have high processing speed compared to other computers. They have also multiprocessing technique. One of the ways in which supercomputers are built is by interconnecting hundreds of microprocessors. Supercomputers are mainly being used for whether forecasting, biomedical research, remote sensing, aircraft design and other areas of science and technology. Examples of supercomputers are CRAY YMP, CRAY2, NEC SX-3, CRAY XMP and PARAM from India.

In-text questions 3

Into how many generations the evolution of computer is divided?
What is VLSIC?
The personal computer that you see today is in which generation of computer?

What you have learnt

In this lesson we have discussed about the major characteristics of computer. The speed, accuracy, memory and versatility are some of the features associated with a computer. But the computer that we see to
day has not developed over night. It has taken centuries of human effort to see the computer in its present form today. There are five generations of computer. Over these generations the physical size of computer has decreased, but on the other hand the processing speed of computer has improved tremendously. We also discussed about the varieties of computers available today.

Terminal questions

1. Why is computer known as data processor?

2. Explain in brief the various generations in computer technology?

3. Write a short note on Fifth Generation of computer. What makes it different from Fourth generation computer?

4. Why did the size of computer get reduced in third generation computer?

5. Give short notes on the following:

Versatility
Storage
Slide Rule
Babbage’s Analytical Engine

6. Distinguish between Microcomputer and Mainframe computer.

Feedback to in-text questions

In-text questions 1

A computer is an electronic device, which is used to accept, store, retrieve and process the data. It is called as data processor because it is mainly used for processing data for producing meaningful information.
The characteristics of computer are speed, accuracy, diligence, versatility and storage.

In-text questions 2

Analytical engine, 1823.
Charles Babbage

In-text questions 3

Five generations
Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits
Fourth Generation

Terminal questions

Explain various types of computers.
Explain in brief the various generations in computer technology.
Write a short note on Fifth Generation of computer. What makes it different from Fourth Generation computer?
Why did the size of computer get reduced in Third Generation computer?

In-text questions 4

1. State True or False

Word processor is Software Package that enables you to create, edit, print and save document .
WordStar is a popular Word processor.
Changing the size of the margins cannot reformat complete document or part of the text.
Word has the facility of Macros.
Word does not allow the user to mix the graphical pictures with text.

In text questions 5

1. Choose the best answer.

1. While working in Microsoft Word you have to work with

Mouse only
Keyboard only
Both mouse and keyboard

2. In Ms- Word every command is available in

Print
Letter
Icons

3. You can go inside Microsoft Word by the following way

Take the mouse pointer to start button on the task bar and click the left mouse button.
Take the mouse pointer to start button and click the right mouse button.
Move the mouse pointer on the screen.

4. State True or False

The title bar displays the name of the currently active word document
The most commonly tool bars are the Formatting tool bar and the Standard tool bar.
The Tool bar allows you to format the vertical alignment of text.
The Scroll bar helps you to scroll the content or body of document.
The work space is the area in the document window where you enter/type the text.

In-text question 6

1. State True or False

Using View option you can perform editing functions such as cut, copy, paste, find and replace etc.
Using the Edit option you can switch over from Normal mode to Out line mode.
Using Insert menu you can insert various objects such as page numbers, footnotes, picture frames etc.
Using Tools menu you can access to various utilities of word such as spell check, macros and mail merge etc.
Window menu allows you to work with two documents simultaneously.

Web Page Designing | Computer Science | HSEB Notes

Computer 11 Notes — Sun, 08 Apr 2012 05:41:42 +0000

Web page designing

1. Some of the Terms

HTML
HTML Tag

Paired Tag
Singular Tag

2. Basic structure of HTML

3. HTML Tag for formatting document

Heading tag
Paragraph
SUP & SUB tag
Comment tag
Tag
Font tag
Ordered & unordered tag
Inserting image inserting hyperlink
Scrolling Tag
FRAME Design
FORM designing

Radio Button
Check Box
Submit and Resent Button
Drop Down List

4. CSS (Cascading Style Sheet)

Boolean Algebra

Computer 11 Notes — Sun, 08 Apr 2012 05:41:42 +0000

Boolean Algebra

1) Logic gates

AND gate
OR gate
NOT gate
NAND gate
NOR gate
XOR gate
XNOR gate

2) NAND AND NOR gate are often called as universal gate. Why?

3) Difference between NAND & NOR gate

SPOOL (Simultaneous Peripheral Operation On-line)

Computer 11 Notes — Sun, 08 Apr 2012 05:41:42 +0000

It is a free space of secondary memory managed by OS for the communication with peripheral devices like printer. It is required because of the difference in the operating speed of the CPU and peripheral devices. Peripheral devices are slow in their operation. The process of using SPOOL is known as spooling.

Types of OS

Computer 11 Notes — Sun, 08 Apr 2012 05:41:42 +0000

1. On the basis of processing

Batch Processing OS
Multitasking OS
Multiprocessing OS
Multiprogramming OS
Real-time OS
Multithreading OS

2. On the basis of user interface

3. On the basis of mode of user

Single user OS
Multiuser OS

Batch processing

A batch processing is a group processing system in which all the required inputs of all the processing task are provided initially. The result of all the task are provided after the completion of all the processing. Its main features are

Multiple task are processed.
User cannot provide input in between processing.
It is appropriate only when all the inputs are known in advance.
It requires larger memory.
CPU idle time is less.
Printer is the appropriate output device.
It is old processing technique and rarely used at present.

Multitasking OS are of two types:

Pre – empetive multitasking
Co-operative multitasking

In the pre-empetive multitasking, the OS allows CPU time slices to each program. After each time slice, CPU executes another task.

Example:- Windows XP

In co-operative multitasking, a task can control CPU as long as it requires. However , it will free CPU to execute another progrqam if it doesn’t require CPU

Example :- Windows 3x , Multifinder

Multiprocessing OS

A multiprocessing OS can support the execution of multiple number of the same time. It uses multiple number of CPU. It is costlier. However, the processing speed will be faster. It is complex in its execution.

Operating system like Unix,64bit edition of windows, server edition of windows, etc are multiprocessing.

Multiprogamming OS

In a multiprogramming OS, more than one programs can be used at a same time. It may or may not be multiprocessing, In a single CPU system, multiple programs are executed one after another by dividing the CPU in small time slices.

Example :- Windows, linux, Unix, etc.

Multithreading OS

A program in execution is known as process. A process can be further divided into multiple sub processes. These sub- processes are known as threads. A multi-threading OS can divide process into threads and execute those threads. This increases operating speed but also increases the complexity.

Example :- Unix, Server edition of Linux and Windows

Computer Organization

Computer 11 Notes — Sun, 08 Apr 2012 05:41:42 +0000

(Inside Computer System)

Introduction to computer organization

In the previous lesson we discussed about the evolution of computer. In this lesson we will provide you with an overview of the basic design of a computer. You will know how different parts of a computer are organized and how various operations are performed between different parts to do a specific task. As you know from the previous lesson the internal architecture of computer may differ from system to system, but the basic organization remains the same for all computer systems.

Objectives

At the end of the lesson you will be able to:

Understand basic organization of computer system
Understand the meaning of Arithmetic Logical Unit, Control Unit and Central Processing Unit
Differentiate between bit , byte and a word
Define computer memory
Differentiate between primary memory and secondary memory
Differentiate between primary storage and secondary storage units
Differentiate between input devices and output devices

Basic computer operations

A computer as shown in Fig. 2.1 performs basically five major operations or functions irrespective of their size and make. These are 1) it accepts data or instructions by way of input, 2) it stores data, 3) it can process data as required by the user, 4) it gives results in the form of output, and 5) it controls all operations inside a computer. We discuss below each of these operations.

1. Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system. You should know that computer is an electronic machine like any other machine which takes as inputs raw data and performs some processing giving out processed data. Therefore, the input unit takes data from us to the computer in an organized manner for processing.

2. Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage. Data has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is because the processing speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast that the data has to be provided to CPU with the same speed. Therefore the data is first stored in the storage unit for faster access and processing. This storage unit or the primary storage of the computer system is designed to do the above functionality. It provides space for storing data and instructions.

The storage unit performs the following major functions:

All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.
Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.

3. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit.

4. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information. Similarly the output produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside the computer before being given to you in human readable form. Again the output is also stored inside the computer for further processing.

5. Control: The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations are performed. Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations in side the computer.

Functional units

In order to carry out the operations mentioned in the previous section the computer allocates the task between its various functional units. The computer system is divided into three separate units for its operation.
They are:

Arithmetic logical unit
Control unit
Central processing unit

Arithmetic logical unit (ALU)

After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the primary storage unit. The actual processing of the data and instruction are performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit. The major operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and comparison. Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required. After processing the output is returned back to storage unit for further processing or getting stored.

Control unit (CU)

The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor seeing that things are done in proper fashion. The control unit determines the sequence in which computer programs and instructions are executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the main memory, interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the computer to execute them. It also acts as a switch board operator when several users access the computer simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates the activities of computer’s peripheral equipment as they perform the input and output. Therefore it is the manager of all operations mentioned in the previous section..

Central processing unit (CPU)

The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing unit. You may call CPU as the brain of any computer system. It is just like brain that takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs different parts of the computer functions by activating and controlling the operations.

Fig. 2.2: Computer Architecture

Personal computer configuration

Now let us identify the physical components that make the computer work. These are:

Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Computer Memory (RAM and ROM)
Data bus
Ports
Motherboard
Hard disk
Output Devices
Input Devices

All these components are inter-connected for the personal computer to work.

In-text questions 1

1. What are the five basic operations performed by the computer?

2. Define ALU, CU and CPU.

3. Choose the correct answer:

1. The task of performing arithmetic and logical operations is called**

ALU
Editing
Storage
Output

2. The ALU and CU jointly known as

RAM
ROM
CPU
None of the above

3. The process of producing results from the data for getting useful information

Output
Input
Processing
Storage

Memory system in a computer

There are two kinds of computer memory: primary and secondary. Primary memory is accessible directly by the processing unit. RAM is an example of primary memory. As soon as the computer is switched off the contents of the primary memory is lost. You can store and retrieve data much faster with primary memory compared to secondary memory. Secondary memory such as floppy disks, magnetic disk, etc., is located outside the computer. Primary memory is more expensive than secondary memory. Because of this the size of primary memory is less than that of secondary memory. We will discuss about secondary memory later on.

Computer memory is used to store two things: i) instructions to execute a program and ii) data. When the computer is doing any job, the data that have to be processed are stored in the primary memory. This data may come from an input device like keyboard or from a secondary storage device like a floppy disk.

As program or the set of instructions is kept in primary memory, the computer is able to follow instantly the set of instructions. For example, when you book ticket from railway reservation counter, the computer has to follow the same steps: take the request, check the availability of seats, calculate fare, wait for money to be paid, store the reservation and get the ticket printed out. The programme containing these steps is kept in memory of the computer and is followed for each request.

But inside the computer, the steps followed are quite different from what we see on the monitor or screen. In computer’s memory both programs and data are stored in the binary form. You have already been introduced with decimal number system, that is the numbers 1 to 9 and 0. The binary system has only two values 0 and 1. These are called bits. As human beings we all understand decimal system but the computer can only understand binary system. It is because a large number of integrated circuits inside the computer can be considered as switches, which can be made ON, or OFF. If a switch is ON it is considered 1 and if it is OFF it is 0. A number of switches in different states will give you a message like this: 110101….10. So the computer takes input in the form of 0 and 1 and gives output in the form 0 and 1 only. Is it not absurd if the computer gives outputs as 0’s & 1’s only? But you do not have to worry about. Every number in binary system can be converted to decimal system and vice versa; for example, 1010 meaning decimal 10. Therefore it is the computer that takes information or data in decimal form from you, convert it in to binary form, process it producing output in binary form and again convert the output to decimal form.

The primary memory as you know in the computer is in the form of IC’s (Integrated Circuits). These circuits are called Random Access Memory (RAM). Each of RAM’s locations stores one byte of information. (One byte is equal to 8 bits). A bit is an acronym for binary digit, which stands for one binary piece of information. This can be either 0 or 1. You will know more about RAM later. The Primary or internal storage section is made up of several small storage locations (ICs) called cells. Each of these cells can store a fixed number of bits called word length.

Each cell has a unique number assigned to it called the address of the cell and it is used to identify the cells. The address starts at 0 and goes up to (N-1). You should know that the memory is like a large cabinet containing as many drawers as there are addresses on memory. Each drawer contains a word and the address is written on outside of the drawer.

Capacity of primary memory

You know that each cell of memory contains one character or 1 byte of data. So the capacity is defined in terms of byte or words. Thus 64 kilobyte (KB) memory is capable of storing 64 ´ 1024 = 32,768 bytes. (1 kilobyte is 1024 bytes). A memory size ranges from few kilobytes in small systems to several thousand kilobytes in large mainframe and super computer. In your personal computer you will find memory capacity in the range of 64 KB, 4 MB, 8 MB and even 16 MB (MB = Million bytes).

The following terms related to memory of a computer are discussed below:

1. Random Access Memory (RAM): The primary storage is referred to as random access memory (RAM) because it is possible to randomly select and use any location of the memory directly store and retrieve data. It takes same time to any address of the memory as the first address. It is also called read/write memory. The storage of data and instructions inside the primary storage is temporary. It disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the computer is switched off. The memories, which loose their content on failure of power supply, are known as volatile memories .So now we can say that RAM is volatile memory.

2. Read Only Memory (ROM): There is another memory in computer, which is called Read Only Memory (ROM). Again it is the ICs inside the PC that form the ROM. The storage of program and data in the ROM is permanent. The ROM stores some standard processing programs supplied by the manufacturers to operate the personal computer. The ROM can only be read by the CPU but it cannot be changed. The basic input/output program is stored in the ROM that examines and initializes various equipment attached to the PC when the switch is made ON. The memories, which do not loose their content on failure of power supply, are known as non-volatile memories. ROM is non-volatile memory.

3. PROM: There is another type of primary memory in computer, which is called Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM). You know that it is not possible to modify or erase programs stored in ROM, but
it is possible for you to store your program in PROM chip. Once the programmes are written it cannot be changed and remain intact even if power is switched off. Therefore programs or instructions written in PROM or ROM cannot be erased or changed.

4. EPROM: This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, which over come the problem of PROM & ROM. EPROM chip can be programmed time and again by erasing the information stored earlier in it. Information stored in EPROM exposing the chip for some time ultraviolet light and it erases chip is reprogrammed using a special programming facility. When the EPROM is in use information can only be read.

5. Cache Memory: The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the access time of main memory. Therefore the performance of CPU decreases due to the slow speed of main memory. To decrease the mismatch in operating speed, a small memory chip is attached between CPU and Main memory whose access time is very close to the processing speed of CPU. It is called cache memory. Cache memories are accessed much faster than conventional RAM. It is used to store programs or data currently being executed or temporary data frequently used by the CPU. So each memory makes main memory to be faster and larger than it really is. It is also very expensive to have bigger size of cache memory and its size is normally kept small.

6. Registers: The CPU processes data and instructions with high speed, there is also movement of data between various units of computer. It is necessary to transfer the processed data with high speed. So the computer uses a number of special memory units called registers. They are not part of the main memory but they store data or information temporarily and pass it on as directed by the control unit.

In-text questions 2

1. Distinguish between bit and byte.

2. Define volatile and non-volatile memory.

3. Write True or False:

There are two kinds of computer memory primary and secondary.
The computer takes inputs in the form of 0 and 1.
The storage of program and data in the RAM is permanent.
PROM is secondary memory.
The memories which do not loose their content on failure of power supply are known as non-volatile memories.

Secondary storage

You are now clear that the operating speed of primary memory or main memory should be as fast as possible to cope up with the CPU speed. These high-speed storage devices are very expensive and hence the cost per bit of storage is also very high. Again the storage capacity of the main memory is also very limited. Often it is necessary to store hundreds of millions of bytes of data for the CPU to process. Therefore additional memory is required in all the computer systems. This memory is called auxiliary memory or secondary storage.

In this type of memory the cost per bit of storage is low. However, the operating speed is slower than that of the primary storage. Huge volume of data are stored here on permanent basis and transferred to the primary storage as and when required. Most widely used secondary storage devices are magnetic tapes and magnetic disk.

1. Magnetic tape: Magnetic tapes are used for large computers like mainframe computers where large volume of data is stored for a longer time. In PC also you can use tapes in the form of cassettes. The cost of storing data in tapes is inexpensive. Tapes consist of magnetic materials that store data permanently. It can be 12.5 mm to 25 mm wide plastic film-type and 500 meter to 1200 meter long which is coated with magnetic material. The deck is connected to the central processor and information is fed into or read from the tape through the processor. It similar to cassette tape recorder.

Advantages of magnetic tape:

Compact: A 10-inch diameter reel of tape is 2400 feet long and is able to hold 800, 1600 or 6250 characters in each inch of its length. The maximum capacity of such tape is 180 million characters. Thus data are stored much more compactly on tape.

Economical:
The cost of storing characters is very less as compared to other storage devices.

Fast: Copying of data is easier and fast.

Long term Storage and Re-usability: Magnetic tapes can be used for long term storage and a tape can be used repeatedly with out loss of data.

2. Magnetic Disk: You might have seen the gramophone record, which is circular like a disk and coated with magnetic material. Magnetic disks used in computer are made on the same principle. It rotates with very high speed inside the computer drive. Data is stored on both the surface of the disk. Magnetic disks are most popular for direct access storage device. Each disk consists of a number of invisible concentric circles called tracks. Information is recorded on tracks of a disk surface in the form of tiny magnetic spots. The presence of a magnetic spot represents one bit and its absence represents zero bit. The information stored in a disk can be read many times without affecting the stored data. So the reading operation is non-destructive. But if you want to write a new data, then the existing data is erased from the disk and new data is recorded.

3. Floppy Disk: It is similar to magnetic disk discussed above. They are 5.25 inch or 3.5 inch in diameter. They come in single or double density and recorded on one or both surface of the diskette. The capacity of a 5.25-inch floppy is 1.2 mega bytes whereas for 3.5 inch floppy it is 1.44 mega bytes. It is cheaper than any other storage devices and is portable. The floppy is a low cost device particularly suitable for personal computer system.

4. Optical Disk:

With every new application and software there is greater demand for memory capacity. It is the necessity to store large volume of data that has led to the development of optical disk storage medium. Optical disks can be divided into the following categories:

Compact disk/ read only memory (CD-ROM): CD-ROM disks are made of reflective metals. CD-ROM is written during the process of manufacturing by high power laser beam. Here the storage density is very high, storage cost is very low and access time is relatively fast. Each disk is approximately 4 1/2 inches in diameter and can hold over 600 MB of data. As the CD-ROM can be read only we cannot write or make changes into the data contained in it.

Write once, read many (WORM): The inconvenience that we can not write any thing in to a CD-ROM is avoided in WORM. A WORM allows the user to write data permanently on to the disk. Once the data is written it can never be erased without physically damaging the disk. Here data can be recorded from keyboard, video scanner, OCR equipment and other devices. The advantage of WORM is that it can store vast amount of data amounting to gigabytes (109 bytes). Any document in a WORM can be accessed very fast, say less than 30 seconds.

Erasable optical disk: These are optical disks where data can be written, erased and re-written. This also applies a laser beam to write and re-write the data. These disks may be used as alternatives to traditional disks. Erasable optical disks are based on a technology known as magnetic optical(MO). To write a data bit on to the erasable optical disk the MO drive’s laser beam heats a tiny, precisely defined point on the disk’s surface and magnetizes it.

Input output device

A computer is only useful when it is able to communicate with the external environment. When you work with the computer you feed your data and instructions through some devices to the computer. These devices are called Input devices. Similarly computer after processing, gives output through other devices called output devices.

For a particular application one form of device is more desirable compared to others. We will discuss various types of I/O devices that are used for different types of applications. They are also known as peripheral devices because they surround the CPU and make a communication between computer and the outer world.

Input devices

Input devices are necessary to convert our information or data in to a form which can be understood by the computer. A good input device should provide timely, accurate and useful data to the main memory of the computer for processing followings are the most useful input devices.

1. Keyboard: – This is the standard input device attached to all computers. The layout of keyboard is just like the traditional typewriter of the type QWERTY. It also contains some extra command keys and function keys. It contains a total of 101 to 104 keys. A typical keyboard used in a computer is shown in Fig. 2.6. You have to press correct combination of keys to input data. The computer can recognize the electrical signals corresponding to the correct key combination and processing is done accordingly.

Fig. 2.6

2. Mouse: – Mouse is an input device that is used with your personal computer. It rolls on a small ball and has two or three buttons on the top. When you roll the mouse across a flat surface the screen censors the mouse in the direction of mouse movement. The cursor moves very fast with mouse giving you more freedom to work in any direction. It is easier and faster to move through a mouse.

3. Scanner: The keyboard can input only text through keys provided in it. If we want to input a picture the keyboard cannot do that. Scanner is an optical device that can input any graphical matter and display it back. The common optical scanner devices are Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR), Optical Mark Reader (OMR) and Optical Character Reader (OCR).

Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR): This is widely used by banks to process large volumes of cheques and drafts. Cheques are put inside the MICR. As they enter the reading unit the cheques pass through the magnetic field which causes the read head to recognise the character of the cheques.

Optical mark reader (OMR): This technique is used when students have appeared in objective type tests and they had to mark their answer by darkening a square or circular space by pencil. These answer sheets are directly fed to a computer for grading where OMR is used.

Optical character recognition (OCR): This technique unites the direct reading of any printed character. Suppose you have a set of hand written characters on a piece of paper. You put it inside the scanner of the computer. This pattern is compared with a site of patterns stored inside the computer. Whichever pattern is matched is called a character read. Patterns that cannot be identified are rejected. OCRs are expensive though better the MICR.

Output devices

1. Visual display unit: The most popular input/output device is the Visual Display Unit (VDU). It is also called the monitor. A Keyboard is used to input data and Monitor is used to display the input data and to receive massages from the computer. A monitor has its own box which is separated from the main computer system and is connected to the computer by cable. In some systems it is compact with the system unit. It can be coloror monochrome.

2. Terminals: It is a very popular interactive input-output unit. It can be divided into two types: hard copy terminals and soft copy terminals. A hard copy terminal provides a printout on paper whereas soft copy terminals provide visual copy on monitor. A terminal when connected to a CPU sends instructions directly to the computer. Terminals are also classified as dumb terminals or intelligent terminals depending upon the work situation.

3. Printer: It is an important output device which can be used to get a printed copy of the processed text or result on paper. There are different types of printers that are designed for different types of applications. Depending on their speed and approach of printing, printers are classified as impact and non-impact printers. Impact printers use the familiar typewriter approach of hammering a typeface against the paper and inked
ribbon. Dot-matrix printers are of this type. Non-impact printers do not hit or impact a ribbon to print. They use electro-static chemicals and ink-jet technologies. Laser printers and Ink-jet printers are of this type. This type of printers can produce color printing and elaborate graphics.

In-text questions 3

1. Distinguish between impact and non-impact printers.

2. Define soft copy and hard copy terminals.

3. Write True or False:

Secondary memory is called Auxiliary memory.
The magnetic tapes and magnetic disk are primary memories.
A CD-ROM is read only memory.
Mouse is an output device.
Printer is an important output device.

What you have learnt

In this lesson we discussed five basic operations that a computer performs. These are input, storage, processing, output and control. A computer accepts data as input, stores it, processes it as the user requires and provides the output in a desired format. The storage unit of a computer is divided into two parts: primary storage and secondary storage. We have discussed the devices used for these two types of storage and their usefulness.

Terminal questions

What are the five basic operations performed by any computer system?
Draw a block diagram to illustrate the basic organization of computer system and explain the function of various units.
What is input device? How does it differ from output device?
Differentiate between RAM and ROM. Also distinguish between PROM and EPROM.
What is cache memory? How is it different from primary memory?
Write short notes on:

Control Unit
Random Access Memory (RAM)

Feedback to in-take questions

In-text questions 1

1. The five basic operations that a computer performs are input, storage, processing, output and control.

ALU: Arithmetic Logic Unit
CU: Control Unit
CPU: Central Processing Unit

3. 1,3,1

In-take questions 2

1. A bit is an acronym for binary digit, which stands for one binary piece of information. This can be either 0 or 1. A byte is equal to 8 bits.

2. The memories which are erased if there is a power failure are known as volatile memories. RAM is an example of volatile memory. The memories, which do not loose their content on failure of power supply, are known as non-volatile memories. ROM is non-volatile memory.

3. 1. T 2. T 3. F 4. F 5. T

In-take questions 3

1. Impact printers use the familiar typewriter approach of hammering a typeface against the paper and inked ribbon. Non-impact printers do not hit or impact a ribbon to print. They use electro-static chemicals and ink-jet technologies.

2. A hard copy terminal provides a printout on paper whereas soft copy terminals provide visual copy on monitor.

3. 1. T 2. F 3. T 4. F 5. T

Classification of Operating System

Computer 11 Notes — Sun, 08 Apr 2012 05:41:42 +0000

1. Multiuser OS:
In a multiuser OS, more than one user can use the same system at a same time through the multi I/O terminal or through the network.
For example: windows, Linux, Mac, etc.
A multiuser OS uses timesharing to support multiple users.

2. Multiprocessing OS:
A multiprocessing OS can support the execution of multiple processes at the same time. It uses multiple number of CPU. It is expensive in cost however, the processing speed will be faster. It is complex in its execution. Operating system like Unix, 64 bit edition of windows, server edition of windows, etc. are multiprocessing.

3. Multiprogramming OS:
In a multiprogramming OS more than one programs can be used at the same time. It may or may not be multiprocessing. In a single CPU system , multiple program are executed one after another by dividing the CPU into small time slice.
example: Windows, Mac, Linux,etc.

4. Multitasking OS:
In a multitasking system more than one task can be performed at the same time but they are executed one after another through a single CPU by time sharing. For example: Windows, Linux, Mac, Unix,etc.
Multitasking OS are of two types:

Pre-empetive multitasking
Co-operative multitasking

In the pre-empetive multitasking, the OS allows CPU times slice to each program. After each time slice, CPU executes another task. Example: Windows XP
In co-operative multitasking a task can control CPU as long as it requires . However, it will free CPU to execute another program if it doesn’t require CPU. Exaample: windows 3.x, multifinder,etc.

5. Multithreading:
A program in execution is known as process. A process can be further divided into multiple sub-processers. These sub-processers are known as threads. A multi-threading OS can divide process into threads and execute those threads. This increases operating speed but also increases the complexity. For example: Unix, Server edition of Linux and windows.

6. Batch processing:
A batch processing is a group of processing system in which all the required input of all the processing task is provided initially. The result of all the task is provided after the completion of all the processing. Its main functions are:

Multiple task are processed
User cannot provide input in between the processing
It is appropriate only when all the inputs are known in advance
It requires large memory
CPU ideal time is less
Printer is the appropriate output device
It is old processing technique and rarely used at present

7. Online processing:
It is an individual processing system in which the task is processed on individual basis as soon as they are provided by the user. It has features like:

Individual task is processed at a time
User can provide input in between processing
It is appropriate when all inputs ate not known in advance
It doesn’t require large memory
CPU ideal time is more
Monitor is appropriate output device
It is modern processing technique and mostly used in present

Computer XI Notes

Computer 11 Notes — Sun, 08 Apr 2012 05:41:42 +0000

General

Introduction to Computer

Classification of Computer

Language/Software

Language/Software

Communication and Computer Network

Communication and computer network

Generation of computer

Generation of computer

Classification of Computer

Number System

Boolean Algebra

Boolean Algebra

Computer System

Operating System

Programming Concept

Application Package

Spread Sheet

Features of Microsoft Excel

Presentation

Internet

Remaining/Extras:

Memory

Computer 11 Notes — Sun, 08 Apr 2012 05:41:42 +0000

Memory is mainly divided into two types. They are:

Classification of Memory

Computer Architecture

Computer 11 Notes — Sun, 08 Apr 2012 05:41:42 +0000

Computer architecture can be defined as the arrangement or construction or design of different components of a computer. It defines how the different components of the computer are connected with each other.

Different components of the computer are given below:

Input unit
Memory unit
CPU
Output unit

1. Input unit
Input Unit is responsible for providing data and instructions to the CPU. It accepts input, converts it into computer’s format and provides it to system memory.
Keyboard is the most common input device. Some other input devices include mouse, joystick, light pen, touch screen, scanner, webcam, and microphone, touch pad and so forth.

2. Memory unit
Memory unit is responsible for storing data and instructions either for a short or longer period of time. Memory is of two types:

Primary Memory/Main memory
Secondary Memory/Auxiliary memory

- Primary memory
Primary memory is used for storing data and instructions during processing. It is the only memory which is directly accessible to CPU. It is expensive, faster and used in small capacity.
Examples:
· RAM
· ROM
· Cache memory

- Secondary memory
It is the additional memory used for storing huge amount of data for a longer period of time. It is also used for transferring data from one computer to another. It is usually cheaper, slower and used in larger capacity. It is not directly accessible to CPU.
Examples: CD, DVD, Hard disk, pen drive, etc.

3. CPU (Central processing unit)
CPU is responsible for processing the inputs for generating the outputs. It controls all the component of the computer. CPU contains three sub-components. They are:

ALU
CU
Set of Registers

- ALU (Arithmetic and logic unit)
It performs arithmetic and logical operations. It performs all its task according to the control signal from CU.

- CU (Control unit)
CU is responsible for controlling all the components of the computer including input devices, output devices, memory devices and other components of CPU. It uses control signal for controlling.

- Set of registers
Register is a temporary memory present in CPU. It is used for storing data instructions while it is being processed by CPU. CPU contains registers like MAR, MBR, TR, etc.

4. Output unit
Output unit is responsible for providing the result after processing. It converts the output from computer’s format into user understandable format before providing it to the user. The outputs generated by the computer are of two types:

Soft copy output
Hard copy output

- Soft copy output

The output from monitor, speaker, projector, etc. is termed as soft copy output. User cannot touch or feel this output. This output remains with the user till the computer is in ON state. User can modify the output is required.

- Hard copy output
The output from printer and plotter is termed as hard copy output. User can touch or feel this output. After the output is generated, it remains with the user even if the computer is in OFF state. User cannot modify the output.

Buffer

Computer 11 Notes — Sun, 08 Apr 2012 05:41:42 +0000

Buffer

It is a temporary memory located in different hardware devices mainly I/O devices. This memory is used to store data during I/O process. The process of using buffer for computer operation is known as buffering.