TyroCity: Political Theory Notes

Political science and ethics (based on conduct and morality)

Political Theory Notes — Sun, 18 Aug 2013 05:41:42 +0000

Political science is the science of political order and ethics is the science of moral order—one is incomplete without other. Plato considers politics as subdivision of ethics, the state to him should train men in a life of virtue.

According to Aristotle, political questions should be solved by man’s highest moral judgment based on ethics.

Politics divorced from ethics rests on a foundation of shifting sand, it leads to commercialization and vulgarization of values and virtues.

According to Ivor Brown, “ethical theory is incomplete without political theory because man is an associated creature and cannot live in isolation.

Political theory is idle without ethical theory because its study and result depends fundamentally on the scheme of moral values, our conception of right and wrong.

Mahatma Gandhi’s version of spiritualization of politics, his application of moral principles are truth, love and non-violence and achievement of God.

Introduction to Jean Jacques Rousseau

Political Theory Notes — Sun, 18 Aug 2013 05:41:42 +0000

Jean Jacques Rousseau

Born at Geneva and died in France, boyhood as vagabond, motherless, and neglected child cared by Uncle.
Spent large part of life in France.
His main writings are ‘Social Contract’ and ‘Discourses’ which influenced French Revolution(1789).
He mentioned popular sovereignty lying on ‘General will’ which came into existence through social contract. He gave his version of the state of nature as causes to the origin of the state where government of general will with popular sovereignty was accepted through social contract.

Formation of Political party

Political Theory Notes — Sun, 18 Aug 2013 05:41:42 +0000

Following are the conditions to form the political party:

There must be certain measures of agreement on fundamental principles-cooperation, devotion, surrender of self-interest, etc.
Organization should be permanently cohesive and well-knit body that enables the members to acquire strength so as to act in a concert.
Parties should be organized with a clear and specific programs and policies before the electorate to win their support. Any deviation could destroy party’s stand and entity as well as confidence of the people towards it.
That a party should seek to carry out its policy by constitutional means.
All political parties must endeavor to promote national interest being unbiased from sectarian, communal interest and other any interest.

The Scope of State Functions

Political Theory Notes — Sun, 18 Aug 2013 05:41:42 +0000

Minimal Functions

1.Providing pure public goods

2.Defense, Law and order

3.Property rights

4.Macroeconomic management

5.Public health

6.Improving equity

7.Protecting the poor

Intermediate Functions

Addressing externalities
Education, environment
Regulating Monopoly
Overcoming imperfect education
Insurance, financial regulation
Social Insurance

Activist Functions

Industrial policy
Wealth redistribution

State and Statecraft in Kautilya’s Arthasastra

Political Theory Notes — Sun, 18 Aug 2013 05:41:42 +0000

Republican form of governments were well established in ancient India. At the time of the invasion of Alexander of Macedonia (4th century B.C.), there existed a large number of independent Ganas (republics) like Agrasrenies in the Indus valley, Kamboj in the west, Panchals in the north etc . Kautilya, the author of Arthasastra, was a product of this era. He played the main role in defeating the forces of Alexander. Kautilya believed that the Alexander’s successful conquest of (a part of) India was due to the absence of a strong centralized Indian empire. He was determined not to let history repeat itself. Hence the Mauryan empire, which he was instrumental in founding, was (relatively) centralized and very different from the then prevailing republican systems. His treatise – Arthasastra, therefore, deals only with the governance in a monarchical state.

Many Occidental scholars have argued that the Hindu philosophy is anti-thetical to the concept of a state. Max Muller has observed that ” the Hindus were a nation of philosophers. Their struggles were the struggles of thought, their past, the problem of creation, their future, the problem of existence It might therefore be justly said that India has no place in the political history of the world “. Prof. Bloomfield has also argued in the same vein : ” from the beginning of India’s history, religious institutions controlled the character and development of its people to an extent unknown elsewhere … there is no provision in such a scheme for the interests of the state and the development of the race “.

Max Weber saw an absence of ‘rational practical ethic’ in Hinduism. He believed that the rational natural science could not develop in India since the Hindu civilization devalued the empirical world. Vedic philosophy gives emphasis to both the material and the spiritual aspects of the human being. The path of pravriti (enjoyment) and that of nivriti (renunciation) are seen to complement each other (Ghoshal, 1923:7). ‘Rational sciences’ such as Mathematics were well developed in ancient India – the concept of ‘shunya’ (zero) and the decimal system were invented by the ‘buddhijivi (those who make a living from the use of brain power – intellectuals) of the Vedic civilization.

The rationality ethic is the basis of many ancient dharmic texts. Treatise like the Arthasastra advocate the application of reason to statecraft to such an extent that many Occidental scholars have called Kautilya as the “Machiavelli of India”.

Rajdharma

Political Theory Notes — Sun, 18 Aug 2013 05:41:42 +0000

Manu has mentioned physical, spiritual and political basis of the state.

The political basis of the state comprises the executive, legislative and judicial organs. Executive consists of the King or swami or Raja, his council of ministers and his permanent civil services. The king is the head of the state. He should be endowed with various qualities, duties and dharma which he called in Rajdharma as follows:

The Lord created the King for the protection of all, taking eternal particles of Indra (King of deities), of Wind (Vayu), of Yama, of Sun, of Fire (Agni) of Water (Varun), of the Moon and of the Lord of wealth Kuber, thus Manu accepts the divine origin of Kingship. The king is a great deity in human form.
The King is subject to Dharma and should form ideal council of Ministers for consultations in all matters. The king should select his advisors, ministers, legislators and administrators from amongst the Vanaprastha.
The King should worship daily the aged Brahmin who knows the Vedas and pure. The king should have both qualities from Kshyatria and Brahmin, former is man of action having energetic temperament and later is preacher of Vedas having qualities of meditation, wisdom, self-discipline, purity, control of senses, service of fellowman and always modest.
King constantly should learn modesty from Brahmin for a king who is modest never perishes.
The King should shun various vices springing from love of pleasure and proceeding from wrath which all end in misery such as hunting, gambling, sleeping by day, excess with women, drunkenness, violence, treachery, envy and greedy, etc.
To preserve law and order in his kingdom and to punish offenders and to promote public welfare, the king should always be careful. Manu writes, “punishment alone governs all created beings, it alone protects them, watches over them while they sleep, so punishment is as to be identical with law.
Manu lays down a daily routine of the King. They are: Meditation, worship (of Brahmin and God), listening public complains, consultation with ambassadors, spies, army chief, inspection in all fields and administrative works and rest with a music.
Manu has regarded Dharma as rule of law which no earthly Monarch can ignore. The Monarch is responsible to the people, monarch derives its authority from the people. People owe loyalty to the ruler only when the latter discharges its duty of protecting them properly.
The capital should be well fortified by the construction of strong forts of different kinds.
Taxes should be collected from rich people only.
Well prepared for war at any time in case of external attack, no dependence upon others in war.
Establishment of diplomatic relationship with other nations properly.

Thus the king holds his high office so that he may protect the people, help everyone in his own self knowledge and in the discharge of his own Rajdharma and duties.

Comments on Marx

Political Theory Notes — Sun, 18 Aug 2013 05:41:42 +0000

Sorel, Sidney and Macaver were the commentators on Marx.
Economy is not only the main cause of class struggle, there are other sources of conflicts in society besides economic problems.
Marx’s conception is the ‘over-concentration’ upon economic conflict. Economic mode of production is the ultimate cause of class struggle is difficult to accept.
Human history is not only the history of class struggle, it is difficult to determine the stages of history which corresponds to thesis, antithesis and synthesis. There are other wars in history, such as wars between nations or intra-nations for powers for ethnicity, territory for religions like crusades, etc.
The doctrine of class struggle leads to survival of only one class, i.e., proletariat class in this approach, there is no compromise in tone and democratic version.
Marxian concept of classes is static and rigid.
Dialecticism is the process of development in society, according to Karl Marx, but it would be stopped after the creation of classless and stateless society in his version, which seems most unsuitable for the process of development.
It is dictatorship of revolutionary people not of the whole people, his approach of equality never belongs.
Marx’s prophet of creation of classless and stateless society seems utopia.
Marx theory to some extent is scientific but he has been distorted and twisted time to time.
In his late age, Marx said that ‘I know the only thing that at least I am not Marxist’.

The law of Negation of Negation

Political Theory Notes — Sun, 18 Aug 2013 05:41:42 +0000

Thesis – Antithesis – Synthesis
Direct beginning of class struggle (Nothing would be lost except the chain of your hand).
Victory of proletariat class.
Dictatorship of proletariat class.

The Law of transformation of quantity into quality

Establishment of communism
Creation of classless and stateless society, then no need of state and law, there will be equal law for all without discrimination between classes. So class struggle is a necessity and main route for achieving communism.

Aristotle General Background

Political Theory Notes — Sun, 18 Aug 2013 05:41:42 +0000

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) was born at Stagira, a Greek city state in 384 B.C. in a family of Royal Physician.
He was a man of comfortable means and believed in the necessity of private property and family.
Aristotle entered Plato’s Academia at the age of 17 and studied for 20 years. His philosophy was shaped during that 20 years time.
Aristotle established a school named Lyceum in 335 B.C. It became the intellectual center of Hellas, the Greek people.
He wrote a book named ‘The Politics’.
He is bridge between orient and occident.
He explored 150 countries and studied the Constitution of 150 countries.
He was realist in thought and action in contrast to his teacher Plato who was idealist in thought and action.
His method of study was inductive method. As per the inductive method, specific observation leads to general conclusion.

Definition of Soverignty

Political Theory Notes — Sun, 18 Aug 2013 05:41:42 +0000

Sovereignty’ belonged to the philosophical and political terminology long before Austin. It had, however, been recently transformed by Bentham: ‘When a number of person’, he wrote, ‘(whom we may style subjects)’ are supposed to be in the habit of paying obedience to a person or an assemblage of persons, of a known and certain description (whom we may call governor and governors) are said to be in a state of political society.

Whereas Austin says that “if a determinate human superior, not in a habit of obedience to a like superior, receive habitual obedience from the bulk of a given society, that determinate superior is sovereign in that society, and the society (including the superior) is a society political and independent.’

These points from the basis of Austin’s theory of sovereignty, and the basis was provided by Bentham. There are, however, two difference between the passages from Bentham and Austin which should not be overlooked.

Bentham defined ‘being in a state of political society’; Austin ‘an independent political society’.

That explains why Austin’s definition consists of two conditions,

One positive (the bulk of the population habitually obeys the sovereign) and
The other negative (the sovereign is not in the habit of obeying anyone).

Whereas Bentham’s definition mentions only the positive condition.

The negative condition is relevant only to the independence of a political society with which Bentham was not in this passage concerned.

Austin comments on this omission and says that ‘Mr. Bentham has forgotten to notice’ the necessity of a negative conditions.

The second difference between Austin’s and Bentham’s concept of sovereignty, though it was never noticed by Austin himself, is of much greater importance. Austin’s sovereign has four attributes, all of them of vital importance to his theory of legal system. His sovereignty is:

1. Not subordinate, that is (a) sovereign legislative power cannot be conferred by a law; and (b) this legislative power cannot be revoked by law;

2. Illimitable, that is (a) the sovereign legislative power is legally illimitable, it is the power to legislate any law whatsoever; and (b) the sovereign cannot be made subject to legal duties in the exercise of its legislative power;

3. unique; for every legal system there is (a) one and (b) only one non-subordinate and illimitable legislative power;

4. united: this legislative power in the hands of one person or one body of persons.

Historical Definitions of the word ‘Sovereignty’

The word Sovereignty has been derived from the Latin word ‘Superanus’ meaning supreme.
According to Bernard Crick, “Sovereignty as an absolute power is final decision exercised by some persons or body of persons, recognized both as competent to decide and as able to enforce the decision.”
It means that in every independent state there is an ultimate authority as supreme both in internal and external matters.

Bodin defines the sovereignty as “the supreme power of citizens and subjects unrestrained by law.”

According Duguit, “Sovereignty as generally understood is the commanding power of the state; it is the will of the nation organized in the state; it is the right to give unconditional orders to all individuals in the territory of the state.” (an autocratic definition to some extent)
Burgess describes it as, “original, absolute and unlimited power over the individual subjects and overall association of subjects.” (more autocratic)
Johannes Althusius, a German Jurist, presents a clear and precise conception of sovereignty and ascribed this authority exclusively and immovably to the people.
Johannes Althusius vested the power in the totality of the members of the state.
Grotius, Locke and Rousseau have the same idea that sovereignty is power vested in people.
Roucek, Husjar and others say that “theories of sovereignty are reflections of the social facts, political institutions and cultural backgrounds which are intended to be explained and justified.

Different Stages of Human Civilization

Political Theory Notes — Sun, 18 Aug 2013 05:41:42 +0000

Primitive Communism: Harmony at nature, no tendency of gathering of resources
Feudalism: Transformation of society to agriculture society, emergence of upper class and middle class
Capitalism: Emergence of gap between bourgeois and proletariat
Socialism: Emergence of classless society
Communism: Withering away of state

Class Struggle

Feeling of need of remaining in one place, people entered into agriculture.
Due to the existence of feudal land holders, gap between people became wide.
Means of production became the main element to create classes.
Marx says that human history is full of class struggle and production is the main factor to create classes.
Period of alienation begins because of powerlessness, meaninglessness, normlessness, isolation, self estrangement and process of economic exploitation.
The concept involves a view of human relationship, not based on principle of equality but of one man being superior than another, of one man being a master and another being a slave and one man being an exploiter and another being exploited.

Relationship of political science with history

Political Theory Notes — Sun, 18 Aug 2013 05:41:42 +0000

Intimately connected: without political events, history is only a literature and without history, political science is only a theory. History is past politics and politics is present history.

According to Seeley, “history without political science has no fruits, political science without history has no root.

History provides raw materials to political science Study of political science is possible in the foundation of history.

History is the laboratory of political science. They are interlinked, they are interdependent and interrelated.

Difference between history and political science

In their method of treatment, history is narrative with chronological orders, but political science particularize the political events, depicts (describes) and analyze.
In scope, history is comprehensive dealing economy, religions, military, social and all aspects but political science deals with state, government authority and political relations.
History deals with concrete fact whereas political science deals with ideal and abstract fact.