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Pharmacy

TyroCity.com — Sat, 12 Jul 2014 05:41:42 +0000

Introduction to Pharmacy
Pharmacy is a scientific profession requiring a high level of education and training. At present, there are 4 universities running the undergraduate (4 Year BPharm) programme in pharmacy in Nepal. The total number of institutions that offer Bachelor of Pharmacy (BPharm) and are approved by the council is 15. Pharmacy degrees including Diploma in Pharmacy (Pharmacy Assistant level) are approved by the Nepal Pharmacy Council (NPC), to ensure that students have received appropriate education for their professional registration and subsequent development and careers. The entry for degree level courses in pharmacy is after the completion of 12 years of formal schooling in science stream or its equivalent.

Nepal Pharmacy Council has adopted NPC Guidelines for the Accreditation of Pharmacy Degree Programmes in 2003 and NPC Norms for Establishment of New Pharmacy Degree College for First Year (to start with) and Approval Process of the New College in 2004.

In addition, NPC has adopted approval criteria and guidelines for 3-year Diploma Level (Pharmacy Assistant level) colleges in Nepal. There are 29 such colleges under the affiliation of Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT). The entry for this level is after the completion of 10 years of formal schooling.

Source: Nepal Pharmacy Council (NPC)

General Information
Course Title: Bachelor of Pharmacy (BPharm)
Category: Bachelor
Course Duration: 36-48 months (3-4 years)
Academic Progress: Yearly or Semester (2 semesters per year, a total of 8sem.)
Estimated Cost: N/A

Qualification required for Bachelor of Pharmacy
The selection for Pharmacy is done through different institutions examination and the qualification required for entrance is 10+2 or equivalent with Science(Physics, Chemistry, and Biology) subjects. The student intending to study this course must score a combined score of 50% or above in PCB for the 4 year BPharm course.

Scope of Bachelor of Pharmacy in Nepal
The medical industry is one of the booming industries in the country. This is a great sign for the B.Pharma students. There are few of Pharmaceutical companies in the country which is having research and development. All these companies are in urgent need for B.Pharm graduates. The other sector where these candidates can work is in Laboratories. There are plenty of labs in every nook and corner of the country.

Course Syllabus
One should study the following broad topics during the entire course:

Pharmaceutical Chemistry
Pharmacognosy
Remedial Mathematics
Basic Electronics & Computer Application
Communication Skill
Advance Mathematics
Chemistry of Natural Products
Anatomy and Physiology
Public Health Pharmacy
Biopharmaceutics & pharmacokinetics
Pharmaceutical Biotechnology
Pharmaceutical Management and Entrepreneurship
Engineering Drawing
Pharmacotherapeuctics
Research
Clinical Pharmacy and Drug in
Hospital Pharmacy
Social Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Jurisprudence
Quality Assurance & Instrumental analysis
Project Work

Computer Engineering

TyroCity.com — Sat, 12 Jul 2014 05:41:42 +0000

Introduction to Computer Engineering

Computer engineering is a discipline that integrates several fields of Electrical engineering and computer science required to develop computer hardware and software. Computer engineers usually have training in electronic engineering (or electrical engineering), software design, and hardware-software integration instead of only software engineering or electronic engineering. Computer engineers are involved in many hardware and software aspects of computing, from the design of individual microprocessors, personal computers, and supercomputers, to circuit design. This field of engineering not only focuses on how computer systems themselves work, but also how they integrate into the larger picture.

General Information

Course Title: Bachelor of Engineering in Computer (BE Computer)
Category: Bachelor
Course Duration: 48 months (4 years)
Academic Progress: Semester, 2 semesters per year
Estimated Cost: N/A

Required Qualification to study Computer Engineering

Candidates interested in obtaining admission should be an Intermediate in Science (I.Sc.) or Higher Secondary level (10+2) Science, or Diploma in Engineering or equivalent from a recognized institution with at least second division marks in their Intermediate/equivalent studies. (Students awaiting results may also apply)

Scope of Computer Engineering in Nepal
Computer engineers though are mostly involved in IT industries, they are gaining more demand in other industries viz., bank, airlines, public utilities, manufacturing sector etc., as these industry are becoming more technology oriented and computerised.
Computing professionals might find themselves in a variety of environments in academics, research, industry, government, private and business organizations — analyzing problems for solutions, formulating and testing, using advanced communications or multi-media equipment, or working in teams for product development. Here’s a short list of research and vocational areas in computing.

Artificial Intelligence
Develop computers that simulate human learning and reasoning ability.

Computer Design and Engineering
Design new computer circuits, microchips, and other electronic components.

Computer Architecture
Design new computer instruction sets, and combine electronic or optical components to provide powerful but cost-effective computing.

Information Technology
Develop and manage information systems that support a business or organization.

Software Engineering
Develop methods for the production of software systems on time, within budget, and with few or no defects.

Computer Theory
Investigate the fundamental theories of how computers solve problems, and apply the results to other areas of computer science.

Operating Systems and Networks
Develop the basic software computers use to supervise themselves or to communicate with other computers.

Software Applications
Apply computing and technology to solving problems outside the computer field – in education or medicine, for example.

Course Syllabus
Some of the topics or subjects that you will study during Computer Engineering are:

Digital Circuits and Logic Design
Data Structure and Programming Methodology
Operating Systems
Discrete Mathematics
Database Management System
Web Administration
Computer Networks
Programming Languages
Software Engineering
Artificial Intelligence
Digital signal processing.
Algorithms
Real Time Expert Systems
System Programming
Internet Technologies

Mechanical Engineering

TyroCity.com — Sat, 12 Jul 2014 05:41:42 +0000

Introduction to Mechanical Engineering
Mechanical engineering is a discipline of engineering that applies the principles of physics and materials science for analysis, design, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems. It is the branch of engineering that involves the production and usage of heat and mechanical power for the design, production, and operation of machines and tools. It is one of the oldest and broadest engineering disciplines.

General Information
Course Title: Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering (BE Mechanical)
Category: Bachelor
Course Duration: 48 months (4 years)
Academic Progress: Semester, 2 semesters per year
Estimated Cost: N/A

Required Qualification to study Mechanical Engineering
Candidates interested in obtaining admission should be an Intermediate in Science (I.Sc.) or Higher Secondary level (10+2) Science, or Diploma in Engineering or equivalent from a recognized institution with at least second division marks in their Intermediate/equivalent studies. One who is interested must pass the entrance exam and must be from Science stream with Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics and English as separate compulsory subjects.

Scope of Mechanical Engineering in Nepal
It has a tremendous scope in automobile engineering, cement industry, steel, power sector, Hydraulics, Manufacturing plants, Drilling and mining Industry, Petroleum, Aeronautical, Biotechnology and many more. With its wide scope of application, mechanical engineers remain always in demand, no matter which part of the world. You can also find job very easily in the following public sector industries such as National and International Air force (Technical), National Army, Thermal power corporations and several others.

Course Syllabus
Mechanical Engineers have to study a whole lot of physics, Engineering drawing, machine drawing and many more concepts such as:

Statics
Dynamics
Kinematics
Strength of Materials
Materials Science
Theory of Machines
Thermodynamics
Fluid Mechanics
Heat Transfer
Manufacturing
Machine Design
Electrical Circuits
Laboratory Methods
Vibrations
Engineering Economics
Metallurgy
Manufacturing Process.
Computer Aided Design/ Drafting (CAD)
Automobile Engineering
Industrial Automation and
Robotics

Chartered Accountancy

TyroCity.com — Sat, 12 Jul 2014 05:41:42 +0000

Introduction to Chartered Accountancy
Chartered Accountancy (CA) is a Professional course in Accountancy. Although the title “Accountancy” is used, the course of CA is broader in that apart from Financial Accounting, it has core subjects of study as Auditing, Business Law, Corporate Law, Financial Management, Information Technology, Cost and Management Accountancy, and Taxation. The course is designed in such a way that the Chartered Accountants are recognized as complete business solution providers immediately upon passing the course.

For Students from Nepal, the Chartered Accountancy can be done either from the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nepal (ICAN) or from the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI). CA from both the Institutes (ICAN and ICAI) has 3 levels with a total duration of 4.5 years with a compulsory practical training of 3 years while doing the final level which is called articleship training. In case the Course opts for the ICAI, the students complete the first 2 levels of course from Nepal itself and need to go to India for the 3 years of Articleship at the final level. In case of ICAN, the articleship training and the whole course will be completed from Nepal itself.

General Information

Course Title: Chartered Accountancy
Category: Professional
Course Duration: 54 months (4.5 years)
Academic Progress:
*1st level *– 6 months

*2nd Level *– 1 year

*3rd level *– 3 years (one final examination alongside 3 years practical training)

Books and study materials: All the necessary books and study materials are provided upon Registration. Extra Materials are available in the Institute’s website.

Required Qualification to study Chartered Accountancy

Students who have passed or appeared for +2 or equivalent examination can join the 1st level of CA (students from all streams can join –free entry with no marks barrier)
Students who have passed Bachelors degree can join the second level of CA (In case of ICAN (Nepal), commerce graduates should have atleast 50% marks and non-commerce graduates should have atleast 60% marks; in case of ICAI (India), commerce graduates should have atleast 55% marks and non-commerce graduates should have atleast 60% marks (students from all streams can join)

Scope
Chartered Accountants are increasingly becoming an inseparable part of the top management level in all organizations whether they are public, private or government. CAs can also setup independent practice for Accounting, Auditing, and Consultancy services. Accordingly the demand for CA is growing day by day.

Course Syllabus of Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nepal (ICAN)

Level I (CAP I)

Paper 1 – Fundamentals of Accounting

Paper 2
Part A – Mercantile Laws
Part B – Fundamentals of Economics

Paper 3
Part A – Fundamentals of Management
Part B – Commercial Mathematics and Statistics

Level II (CAP II)

Group I
Paper 1 – Advanced Accounting
Paper 2 – Audit and Assurance
Paper 3 – Corporate and Other Laws

Group II
Paper 4 – Financial Management
Paper 5 – Cost and Management Accounting
Paper 6 – Business Communications and Marketing
Paper 7 – Income Tax and VAT

Level III (CAP III / Final)

Group I
Paper 1 – Advanced Financial Reporting
Paper 2 – Advanced Financial Management
Paper 3 – Advanced Auditing and Assurance
Paper 4 – Corporate Laws

Group II
Paper 5 – Management Information and Control Systems
Paper 6 – Advanced Taxation
Paper 7 – Advanced Cost and Management Accounting
Paper 8 – Strategic management and Decision-making Analysis

Course Syllabus of Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI)

Level I (Common Proficiency Test – CPT)

Section A – Fundamentals of Accounting
Section B – Mercantile Law
Section C – General Economics
Section D – Quantitative Aptitude

Level II (Integrated professional competence course – IPCC)

Group I

Accounting
Business Laws, Ethics and Communication
Cost Accounting and Financial Management
Taxation

Group II

Advanced Accounting
Auditing and Assurance
Information technology and Strategic Management

Level III (Final)

Group I

Financial Reporting
Strategic Financial Management
Advanced Auditing and Professional Ethics
Corporate and allied laws

Group II

Advanced Management Accounting
Information systems control and Audit
Direct Tax Laws
Indirect Tax Laws

Liquid State Answer

TyroCity.com — Sat, 12 Jul 2014 05:41:42 +0000

1. Name the physical property behind rise of liquids in capillary tube.
Ans: Surface Tension

2. Define aqueous tension. Why is it subtracted from the total pressure to determine the pressure of a dry gas?
Ans: Aqueous tension is defined as the partial pressure of the water vapour present in the moist gas.
When the gas is colleced over the water, it becomes moist due to presence of small quantity of water vapour caused by evaporation.

Then, pressure exerted by moist gas = pressure exerted by dry gas + pressure of water vapour (aqueous tension).

i.e. Pmoist = Pdry + f (aqueous tension)

or, Pdry = Pmoist – f

Therefore, aqueous tension should be subtracted from the total pressure to get pressure of the dry gas.

3. What is evaporation? How does it differ from boiling?
Ans: Evaporation is defined as the process of conversion of liquid into vapour from the surface of the liquid at room temperature.

Evaporation Boiling

It takes place at any temperature. It takes place at boiling point only.

It takes place at the surface of liquid. It takes place at the entire volume of the liquid.

It is slow and silent process. It fast and noisy process.

4. Define coefficient of viscosity. How coefficient of viscosity is related with viscous force?

Ans: Coefficient of viscosity is defined as the tangential force per unit area required to maintain unit velocity gradient between the layers of liquid. (……………….)

5. Why is Glycerine more viscous than water?
Ans: Because the intermolecular force is large in glycerine than in water.

6. Why is a mercury droplet spherical?

Ans: Due to surface tension. Surface tension is the property of liquid due to which it tries to aquire minimum surface area. Since, for a given volume sphere has a minimum surface area, a mercury droplet is spherical.

7. In terms of vapour pressure, what do you mean by a boiling point of a liquid?

Ans: Boiling point is the temperature at which the vapour pressure becomes equal to atmospheric pressure.

8. The meniscus for mercury in a glass tube is concave downward. Explain.

Ans: Because cohesive force between molecules of mercury is greater than the adhesive force between mercury and glass molecules.

9. What do you understand by viscosity?

Ans: Viscosity is defined as the property of fluid by virtue of which an internal friction comes into play when the fluid is in motion and opposes the relative motion of its different layers.

10. What is the effect of temperature on: (a) Surface tension (b) Viscosity (c) Vapour pressure of liquid
Surface tension: It decreases on increase in temperature and vice versa.
Viscosity: It decreases on increase in temperature and vice versa.
Vapour pressure: It increases with increase in temperature and vice versa.

11. What do you understand by the term ‘surface tension’?
Surface tension is defined as the property of the liquid due to the intermolecular focre of attraction between the liquid molecules due to which liquid tries to gain minimum surface area.

12. How is surface tension of a liquid originated?

13. Define Vant Hoffs factor. What for it used?

14. What do you mean by boiling point and evaporation?
Boiling point is the temperature at which the vapour pressure becomes equal to atmospheric pressure.
Evaporation is defined as the process of conversion of liquid into vapour from the surface of the liquid at room temperature.

16. Give reason:

a) Falling liquid drops are spherical.
Due to surface tension. Surface tension is the property of liquid due to which it tries to aquire minimum surface area. Since, for a given volume sphere has a minimum surface area, a mercury droplet is spherical.

b) Evaporation takes place from the surface of liquid.
Since, the kinetic energy of the surface molecule is greater than the bulk molecule, evaporation takes place from the surface of liquid.

c) It is more efficient to wash clothes in hot water than cold water.
Surface tension decreases on increase in temperature. Due to this hot water can wet the clothes more effectively then cold water. So, it is more e to wash clothes in hot water than cold water

17. What happens to the vapour pressure of a solvent, when non volatile solute particles are dissolved in it?

A non volatile solute particle lowers the vapour pressure of solvent because solute particles become surrounded by solvent particles when dissolved. This causes the particles of solvent to evaporate less because it requires more energy for the particles to do this since the solvent to solute attraction are strong. So the vapour pressure of a solution is less than that of the pure solvent.

Vapour pressure depends on

Nature of liquid
Temperature
Presence of impurities

18. Why does boiling point of liquid rise on increasing pressure?

As the pressure applied to the liquid surface is increased, the energy needed for the liquid molecules to expand to gas phase also increases. Hence, a higher temperature is required to change liquid to gas phase. So, boiling point of liquid rises on increasing pressure.
Read more at here.

19. Mention physical properties of liquid due surface tension.
Spherical shape of liquid drop.
Rise and fall of liquid in a capillary tube.

BBS

TyroCity.com — Sat, 12 Jul 2014 05:41:42 +0000

Introduction to BBS

The objectives of the BBS programme at the Faculty of Management (FOM) are to develop students into competent managers for any sector of organized activity. The programme is based on the principles that graduates will spend a major portion of their lives in a constantly changing environment. There for the student should have an opportunity to obtain a broad knowledge of the concepts and reality-based skills underlying the operation and management of organizations.

Source: FOM

General Information

Course Title: Bachelor of Business Studies (BBS)
Category: Bachelor
Course Duration: 36 months (3 years)
Academic Progress: Semester, 2 semesters per year
Estimated Cost: N/A

Required Qualification to study BBS

The candidate applying for admission to the BBS program:

Must have successfully completed the PC or 10+2 in business/commerce or an equivalent course from a Higher Secondary School Board, or from Tribhuvan University, or from any other University/Board recognized by T.U.: or must have studied mathematics or economics as a full paper at the PC level or 10+2 program.
Must have studied English as a full paper at the PC level or 10+2 program
Must have secured the minimum marks at the PC level or 10+2 program as prescribed by the Faculty Board or the campus concerned
Must satisfy any other entry requirements or criteria including the entrance test as prescribed by the Faculty Board or the campus.

Scope of BBS in Nepal
It is possible for them to join as HR Executive in various HR consulting firms. By getting into the job of HR Executive, one can earn good amounts as well. One of the lucrative career opportunity available for BBS graduates is Financial Consultants. Other employment opportunities available for BBS graduates are:

Information Analyst
Risk Analyst
Economic Statistician
Share Broker
Market Researcher
Property Manager
Events Manager

Course Syllabus
The core subjects or topics that are to be covered in this course are:

English
Business Mathematics and Statistics
Economic Analysis
Legal Environment of Business
Accounting for Financial Analysis and Planning
Accounting for Financial Analysis and Planning
Cost and Management Accounting
Fundamentals of Marketing
Financial Management
Foundation of Human Resource Management
Accounting for Business
Taxation in Nepal
Auditing
Accounting for Financial Institutions
Corporate Finance
Financial Markets and Intuitions
Investment Analysis
Banking and Insurance
Marketing Communications
Distribution Management
Fundamentals of Selling
Service Marketing
Organizational Analysis and Relations
International Business
Strategic Management
Small Business Management
Computer System and Programming
Productivity Management
Management Information System
Operations Research

Homologous Series

TyroCity.com — Sat, 12 Jul 2014 05:41:42 +0000

Definition

A series of organic compounds that have similar structural features but differ from adjacent members by (-CH2) group is referred to as homologous series. Each member of homologous series is called homolog.

Example

CH3-OH, CH3-CH2-OH, C3H7-OH are the members of a homologous series called "Alcohols".
CH3-COOH, CH3-CH2-COOH, C3H7-COOH are the members of homologous series called "Carboxylic acids".
CH3-O-CH3, C2H5-O-CH3, C3H7-O-CH3 are the members of homologous series called "Ethers".

Characteristics of Homologous Series

1. Structural Forumla
All the members of a homologous series have same structural formula.

2. Molecular Formula
Molecular formula of different members of a homologous series differs from previous and next member by CH2.

3. Nature of Element
All the members of series have same type of elements.

4. Functional Group
All the members of homologous series contain same functional group.

5. General Forumla
Members of a homologous series can be represented by a general formula.

For example:
ALKANE : CnH2n+1
ALKENE : CnH2n
ALKYNE : CnH2n-2
ALCOHOL : CnH2n+1 OH
ETHERS : CnH2nO
Where n = number of carbon atoms.

6. Molecular Mass
Molecular mass of any two consecutive members differ by 14 units

7. Chemical Properties
All the members of a homologous series have same chemical properties due to same functional group.

8. Methods of Preparation
Generally all the members of a series can be prepared by using same method.

9. Physical Properties
Physical properties of the members of a homologous series vary with the increase in atomic weight.

IT Engineering

TyroCity.com — Sat, 12 Jul 2014 05:41:42 +0000

Introduction to IT Engineering

Information plays very important role in life as well as in business. The course mainly focus on efficient storage and retrieval of data from geographically scattered repositories, and reliable transfer to the point of requests and applications. This course makes capable in using computer as well as communication technology.

General Information

Course Title: Bachelor Degree in IT Engineering (BIT)
Category: Bachelor
Course Duration: 48 months (4 years)
Academic Progress: Semester, 2 semesters per year
Estimated Cost: N/A

Qualification Required
I.Sc. or 10+2 (Science), or I.E. or equivalent 2nd division or above from University or boards recognized by respective Universities.

Scope
There are various jobs after completion of IT Engineering, you may get job in govt. sector also and you may apply for several other jobs in the IT sector as per your specialization.

Course Syllabus
One should study the following broad topics in this field:

Engineering Mathematics
Physics
Communication Technique
Programming in C
Problem Solving Techniques
Basic Electrical Engineering
Network Theory
Mathamatical Foundation for Computer
Object Oriented Programming in C++
Electronic Devices
Engineering Drawing
Logic Circuits
Electric Circuits
Data and File Structure
Probability & Queuing Theory
Programming in Java
Instrumentation
Microprocessor and Assembly
Data Base System
Software Engineerin Fundamentals
Numerical Methods
Applied Operating System
Principle of Communication
Signal and System Processing
Advanced Computer Architecture
Computer Graphics
Data Communication
Web Technology
Organization and Management
Object Oriented Design and Modeling
Mutimedia Systems
Computer Network and Internets
Managerial Economics
Client Server Architecture & Applications
Network Programming
Project Management
Social and Professional Issues in IT
Project Work

What after +2?

TyroCity.com — Sat, 12 Jul 2014 05:41:42 +0000

Suddenly, right after the completion of your NEB Board exams, you are tensed. Your mind is pre-occupied and you are in dilemma what next to do and what not to? Is this correct for me or not? Will this field help me to accomplish the dream I had at the start or will it create more confusions to me? These and others of these kinds of questions will surely hover in your mind as well. So, what is the alternative? What should I do? This friend of mine has got a scholarship in this country and is going to study there and several others have already decided their destiny and has nothing to do more than admission now. Oh! And, that friend of mine has already started working at a good company.

Our humble suggestion to you at the start is to relax. Nothing has been wrong yet, nothing will be wrong. You are still on the right track, and you will surely be if you think with a cool head. There can be many obstacles in your path to success, it can be delayed. But if you keep working towards it; it’ll come to you. You must be brave enough to shoot your cowardice and enhance what you have learned till now in your practical life.

Remember, we can only suggest you. It’s you who need to embrace it in a way that best suits you. Below are three stages you’ll go through during this phase of life and our suggestion for each of it.

First of all, know your capability. Think what you are interested in. No job is big or small but your mentality is. Set up your mind in the field where you can be perfect, where you can be one of the best in the world. Seek deep inside you; you have the capability to change things around you. When Bill Gates started his company, he started small but now, it speaks for itself. So, if he can do why can’t you? Just don’t think of the possibility, do it!

Consider choosing a field in which you are interested to join. Not because someone else wants you to do so or you did so just because some of your close friends joined it as well. Since, you are the one to live your life, not your family members, friends or relatives think carefully before making a decision.

Secondly, once you set up your mind on what next to do. Your other task will be to confirm whether you would like to accomplish that in your own nation or in abroad. If it’s in your own country, look for colleges to get your degree; if its job, look for ones that best suits you. However, if you consider continuing your education or career in a foreign land think which county you would like to be in and also prepare for the tests like IELTS, SAT, GRE, and others as relevant. If you set a target and work upon it, you surely can achieve.

Consider where to study and set your mind to accomplish the goal at any cost. Work towards it.

Finally, once you sort our where you want to continue with your life, promise yourself that you’ll give your fullest to get admitted to the shortlisted university in the nation of your choice. If it doesn’t work out, try for the next intake and if you don’t want to wait; go for the next option – don’t lose hope. And, remember it’s you at the end of the day rather than just another college.

We just want to say that, the dream of your own career and further study must be balanced and equalized. There must be a proper balance between your present requirement, ability, interest and your future career. In whatever field you choose to dive or in whichever country you want to continue, you must give your 100% dedication and consistency. Even If you fall back at some point in your life, you must rather stand up and walk through a new path than to retreat. Never give up and think with your head. We wish you all best of luck for your successful career ahead.

Gravitation

TyroCity.com — Sat, 12 Jul 2014 05:41:42 +0000

Gravitation
Every object in our universe attracts the other object with certain force towards its center. This force of attraction is known as GRAVITATIONAL FORCE and the phenomenon is called GRAVITATION. This is gravitational force which is responsible for the uniformity or regularity in our daily astronomical life. The whole system of the universe is in order only due to this force. Due to gravitation, the system of our universe is working uniformly and smoothly. The planets around the earth or around the sun moves in an orderly motion due to gravitation.

Newton's Law of Gravitation

In order to explain the gravitational force between two bodies, Newton formulated a fundamental law known after his name i.e. “NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION”

Newton’s law of gravitation states thatevery object in the universe attracts the other object with a force and :

(1) The gravitational force of attraction between two bodies is directly proportional to the product of their masses.

F a m1 x m2 ——- (1)

(2) The gravitational force of attraction between two bodies is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers.

F a 1/r² ——— (2)

Mathematical Representation

Let us consider two bodies of masses m1 and m2 placed with their centres at distance of r from each other.

According to the Newton’s law of gravitation, the gravitational force of attraction between them is

F a m1 x m2 ——- (1)
F a 1/r¹ ——— (2)
F a m1m2 /r¹

Combining (1) and (2)

F = G m1m2/r¹

Where is the constant of proportionality.

G = universal gravitational constant

Value of G:

G = 6.67 x 10^-11 Nm²/kg²

Vectoral form of the law

The law of universal gravitation can also be expressed in vector form, which gives the magnitude as well as the direction of gravitational force.

The force exerted on body (1) by body (2) is always directed towards body (2) and acts along the line joining their centres
The displacement vector "r" from (2) to (1) is directed from body (2) to body (1), then,

The force exerted on body (2) by body (1) is always directed towards body (1) and acts along the line joining their centres
The displacement vector "r" from (1) to (2) is directed from body (1) to body (2), then,

The negative sign shows that the force of gravitation between two bodies is always an attractive force not a repulsive force.

Number System

TyroCity.com — Sat, 12 Jul 2014 05:41:42 +0000

Conversion Techniques

1. Decimal to
a. Binary

/2 (Integer Part)
*2 (Decimal Part)

b. Octal

/8 (Integer Part)
*8 (Decimal Part)

c. Hexadecimal

/16 (Integer Part)
*16 (Decimal Part)

2. Binary to
a. Octal

Table (3-bit)

b. Decimal

*2n For eg. (1011)2 =1*23+0*22 +1*21+1*20

c. Hexadecimal

Table (4-bit)

3. Octal to
a. Binary

Table (3-bit)

b. Decimal

*8n For eg. (2341)8 =2*83+3*82 +4*81+1*80

c. Hexadecimal

Construct table of:
- Octal-Binary (3Bit)
- Binary-hexadecimal (4Bit)

4. Hexadecimal to

a. Binary

Table (4-bit)

b. Octal

Construct table of:
- Hexa-Binary (4Bit)
- Binary-Octal (3Bit)

c. Decimal

*16n For eg. (12A8)2 =1*163+2*162 +10*161+8*160

1’s and 2’s Complement

9’s and 10’s Complement